PMC

(A) Spectrogram illustrating the variation of frequency and intensity of the road traffic noise cue over time. The brighter the color, the more energy is concentrated at that frequency. (B) Spectrogram of the human voices cue. (C) Oscillogram representing the waveform and relative amplitude of the road traffic noise cue. (D) Oscillogram of the human voices cue. (E) Power spectra of the road traffic noise cue showing a dominant peak at a frequency of approximately 1 kHz. (F) Power spectra of the human voices cue showing a series of peaks at several frequencies.

V1 neurons recorded following cortical infusion and cue-reward reversal. A–B) Example neurons exhibiting sustained increase (top), sustained decrease (middle) and peak (bottom) reward timing recorded from intact (orange) and lesioned (red) animals following V1 drug infusion and cue-reward pairing reversal. Conventions are as in , with the current reward time associated with the dominant cue shown in blue (“reversed”) and the reward time initially associated with the dominant cue shown in gray (“initial”). A) Cue 1-dominant neurons from saline-infused animals (left) update their policy to reflect the reversed contingency (cue 1 associated with a long delay) while neurons from lesioned animals (right) continue to report the initial policy. B) Cue 2-dominant neurons report the new contingency (cue 2 associated with a short delay) in intact animals (left), while neurons from 192-IgG-saporin-infused animals (right) continue to express the outdated policy. C) NRTs recorded following contingency reversal, plotted as cumulative population distributions of update index scores. Zero represents the reward time initially associated with the dominant cue and one represents the reward time associated with the dominant cue following reversal (gray: observations recorded under the initial task parameters; orange: observations collected from intact animals after reversal; red: observations gathered from lesioned animals after reversal). Scores from intact animals (left; n = 182) form a population with a median value that is distinct from the initial observations (Mann-Whitney U test P < 10⁻¹⁰) while neurons collected from lesioned animals (right; n = 131) continue as a population to report the same median value (P = 0.6929). See also . Boxplot conventions are as in .

Two cues for heading direction were generated with a constant heading discrepancy between them, and calibration was simulated according to Model 3. Pre-calibration, one cue was accurate (blue), and the other, biased (red) in relation to external feedback. Psychometric plots and probability density functions were generated similar to . But here, post-calibration plots represent partial calibration, as depicted by the vertical dashed lines and arrows in the time-course plots (rightmost column). Green arrows represent the supervised, yoked, component, and blue and red arrows (for the accurate and inaccurate cue, respectively) represent the unsupervised, individual, component. (A) When the accurate cue was also more reliable, the combined cue bias was small (Δcomb; left column) and hence the yoked component was small. In total this resulted in a shift of the inaccurate but not accurate cue. (B) When accuracy and reliability were dissociated, the combined cue bias was large and hence the yoked component was dominant. This resulted in a shift of the accurate cue together with the inaccurate cue.

Cued reaction time task. Between a preparation cue and response cue, a video clip was shown. Participants responded as quickly as possible to the go cue with the index finger of their dominant hand. ITI, intertrial interval